Bessa, Maria JoãoBrandão, FátimaRosário, FernandaMoreira, LucianaReis, Ana TeresaValdiglesias, VanessaLaffon, BlancaFraga, SóniaTeixeira, João Paulo2023-10-062023-10-062023-01-24J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2023 Feb 17;26(2):67-96. doi: 10.1080/10937404.2023.2166638. Epub 2023 Jan 24. Review1093-7404http://hdl.handle.net/10400.18/8666ReviewSeveral studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While in vivo studies are fundamental for identifying the relation-ship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, in vitro model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an over-view of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for in vitro testing, advan-tages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.engNanoparticlesAir-liquid InterfaceIn vitroRespiratory ModelsSubmerged CulturesToxicity TestingToxicologiajournal article10.1080/10937404.2023.2166638